Relationship between mode of sport training and general cognitive performance

Erik Chih-Hung Chng,Chien-Heng Chu,Costs I.Krgeorghis,Chun-Chih Wng, Jk Hn-Cho Tsi,Yung-Shun Wng,Yu-Ki Chng,*

aInstitute of Cognitive Neuroscience,National Central University,Taoyuan County 32001,Taiwan,China

bGraduate Institute of Athletics and Coaching Science,National Taiwan Sport University,Taoyuan County 33371,Taiwan,China

cDepartment of Life Sciences,Brunel University London,Middlesex UB8 3PH,UK

dInstitute of Neuroscience,NationalYang-Ming University,Taipei 11221,Taiwan,China

Relationship between mode of sport training and general cognitive performance

Erik Chih-Hung Changa,Chien-Heng Chub,Costas I.Karageorghisc,Chun-Chih Wangb, Jack Han-Chao Tsaia,Yung-Shun Wangd,Yu-Kai Changb,*

aInstitute of Cognitive Neuroscience,National Central University,Taoyuan County 32001,Taiwan,China

bGraduate Institute of Athletics and Coaching Science,National Taiwan Sport University,Taoyuan County 33371,Taiwan,China

cDepartment of Life Sciences,Brunel University London,Middlesex UB8 3PH,UK

dInstitute of Neuroscience,NationalYang-Ming University,Taipei 11221,Taiwan,China

Purpose:To investigate whether athletes who engage in different modes of sports training correspondingly exhibit different patterns of performance on general cognition tasks.

Cognitive function;Executive control;Expert;Motor fitness Physical fitness Sport

1.Introduction

Recent research has provided promising evidence for the positive relationship between exercise and cognition across the lifespan.1–4In particular,studies that employed a cross-sectional design have indicated that people with higher fitnes levels or those participating in habitual physical activity exhibit superior cognitive functions when compared to those with lower fitnes levels,or those who exercise infrequently.5,6Similar results have been reported in studies employing longitudinal designs,which have indicated that long-term exercise training and improved fitnes levels are associated with better cognitive functions or a delay in age-related cognitive decline.7

Meta-analyses have examined the possible moderator of exercise effects on cognition and have identifie mode of exercise or training,age,and thetypeofcognitivetask thatisemployed.8Most studieshaveaddressed enduranceoraerobic-typeexerciseand the corollary cardiovascular fitnes effects on cognitive functions. Chaddock et al.5demonstrated that pre-adolescent children with high cardiovascularfitnes levelsexhibited superiormemory performance when compared to those with low fitnes status.Accordingly,Netz etal.6reported thatolderadultswith moderate levelsof cardiovascular fitnes performed better in global cognitive functions when compared to those with lowerfitness The prominence of cardiovascular fitnes has been positively associated with specifi aspects of brain anatomy that are implicated in cognitive processes;these include hippocampal volume,basal ganglia volume,and neural functional connectivity.9,10

Other activity modes that require a high level of motor control (e.g.,gymnastics and martial arts)can improve both physical fitnes(e.g.,cardiovascular capacity,muscular strength,and mus-cular duration)and motor fitnes(e.g.,power,agility,balance,and fl xibility),which might have a bearing on cognition,beyond the effects attributable to enhanced cardiovascular fitness Crosssectionalstudieshave indicated thatnotonly cardiovascularfitnes but also muscular strength,agility,balance,motor coordination, and fl xibility were associated with improvements in multiple cognitive functions in older adults11and children.12Further,a functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI)study showed that individuals with higher motor fitnes exhibited higher levels of activation in certain brain regions(e.g.,frontoparietal network) during cognitive tasks,suggesting a link between participation in a complex motor tasks or fitnes training and cognition.11Nonetheless,given that only a few such studies have examined the effects of training modality on cognition,there is an insufficien evidence base with which to arrive at any fi m conclusion.

With intense and prolonged training for competitive sport, athletes who reach the elite level are generally characterized by high physical and motor fitness A reasonable assumption is that such athletes would exhibit adaptations in a range of cognitive functions.Indeed the expert performance approach hypothesis holds that when compared to non-experts,athletes with a high level of expertise should show superior outcomes across a range of sport-specifi cognitive domains(e.g.,decision making, declarative memory,perception,and visual searching capacity), with sports demanding high levels of coordination showing the most superior outcomes.13,14Nevertheless,whether the effects of sports expertise might transfer from a sport-specifi domain to a general cognitive domain has not been the topic of systematic investigation,albeit that initial finding do appear promising.15,16Using the Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System(D-KEFS)test battery,Vestberg et al.15reported that both high and low division players displayed superior general cognitive performances compared to control groups,whereas higher division players showed additional improvements. Chaddock et al.16also examined sports expertise and general cognition,as assessed by a virtual reality street-crossing paradigm.They observed that Division I athletes had fewer collisions and faster processing speeds than non-athletes.While these recent studies provided some encouraging initial evidence regarding levels of athletic experience,it is not yet clear whether exposure to different types of sport may also influenc general cognitive functions.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the differences between types of sport(i.e.,a sport with longduration/simple motoric skillsvs.a sport involving complex motor skills)on general cognition in high-level athletes.We drew upon athletes who were accomplished in marathon running (endurance sport)and Wushu(a Chinese routine-based martial art involving a series of complex motor skills),given that we expected elite marathon runners to be endowed with high cardiovascular fitness and professional martial artists to be endowed with cardiovascular fitnes and high motor fitness We hypothesized that both sports expertise groups would perform better when compared to a control group who were infrequent exercise participants,and sport expertise would influenc cognitive performance differentially;the Wushu athletes would exhibit superior cognitive functions.

2.Methods

2.1.Participants

Sixty college students(42 males,21.12±1.37 years;18 females,21.78±1.47 years)were recruited from Taoyuan, Taiwan,China.All participants met the criteria of being free of cardiovascular,pulmonary,and metabolic diseases,as wellas any mental disorders.They were screened using a demographic questionnaire(Table 1),theirmedicalhistory,and the PhysicalActivity Readiness Questionnaire(PAR-Q).13Participants in the endurancegroup were eliteathletesinvolved in marathon running while those in the motorically complex group were elite athletes involved in Wushu training.Control group participants engaged infrequently in exercise/recreational activity.Athletes in both sport groups had reached either national or international level in theirrespectivedisciplinesand engaged in intensivetraining forat least6 monthspriorto theirrecruitmentinto the study.Participants were required to read and sign an informed consentform.And this study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of the NationalTaiwan Sport University.

2.2.Cardiovascular fitnes assessment

Cardiovascular fitnes is one of the main components of physical fitnes and has been linked to cognitive performance. The peak oxygen consumption(VO2peak)for each participant was assessed using the Bruce Treadmill Protocol,which is a maximal graded exercise test(GXT).Each participant was required to undergo the fitnes test on a motorized treadmill (h/p/cosmos airwalk,Traunstein,Germany).Several criteria were applied in determining each participant’s maximal cardiovascular capacity including(a)a plateau in heart rate with increasing exercise intensity,(b)a respiratory exchange ratio above 1.15,(c)rating of perceived exertion on Borg’s original RPE scale of 17 or above.

2.3.Muscular,muscular endurance,and flexibilit assessment

Other physical fitnes components pertaining to muscular strength,muscular endurance and fl xibility were assessed following exercise testing guidelines.17Specificaly,muscular strength was assessed using a handgrip dynamometer for each hand.Muscular endurance was assessed using a protocol that entailed 60 spress-ups(male),60 sbent-kneepress-ups(female), as well as both 30 s and 60 s abdominal curl-ups.A sit-and-reach test was conducted using a fl xometer to measure lower back and hamstring fl xibility.Body composition wasassessed by meansof body mass index(BMI)as well as bioimpedance spectroscopy techniques(InBody 3.0 DS12B887;Biospace Co.Ltd.,Seoul, Korea)with which percentage body fat mass was calculated.

2.4.Agility and power of motor fitnes assessment

In regard to motor fitness emphasis was placed upon 2 components:agility and power.These were assessed using a T-test and a vertical jump test,respectively.18In the T-test,each participant was required to run as fast as possible to 4 cones that were arranged in a“T”formation.In the vertical jump,eachthe response card corresponded with one of 4 key cards based upon its potential match characteristics(by pressing the F,G,H, or J keys on a computer keyboard).The computer provided the immediate feedback“Correct”or“Incorrect”after participants performed each response card trial to identify whether the card was correctly matched.The sorting category(i.e.,color,shape, or number)changed after 10 consecutive correct sorts.The WCST was terminated after the participant either successfully performed 6 categories or completed 128 response cards.Generally,participants were able to complete the test administration within 20 min.The variables used in the statistical analyses were indices of categories completed, total correct, perseverative errors,perseverative response,conceptual level response,non-perseverative error,and failure to maintain set.

2.6.3.Tower of London TaskDX

Aversion oftheTowerofLondon TaskDX(ToLTask)wasused in this study.The ToL Task is a widely administered neuropsychological assessment for measuring the planning aspects of executive functions.The ToLTask consists of2 identicalwooden boards(30 cm×7 cm×10 cm),one for the participant and one forthe experimenter,and 2 sets of3 beans(blue,green,and red). Each board consistsof3 verticalpegswith graded heights,where the longest,middle,and shortest peg can hold 3,2,and 1 bean, respectively.Each participant was asked to move beans as few timesaspossiblefromthestarting configuratio to oneof10 goal configuration while not violating the rules.24,25Administration of the ToLTask took 20 min.Total correct scores and total move scoreswere derived forstatisticalanalysisgiven thatthese scores have been found to be influence by aerobic and resistance (anaerobic)exercises.24,25

2.6.4.Experimental procedure

Participants visited the laboratory individually for 3 sessions,each of 90 min.All sessions were completed within 2 weeks and separated by at least a 2-day interval.During the firs session,each participant completed an informed consent form as well as demographic,medical history,PAR-Q,and International Physical Activity Questionnaire(IPAQ)26to identify whether they met the inclusion criteria.Resting heart rate was assessed after each participant sat quietly in a comfortable chair for 20 min.Participants who met the inclusion criteria were then instructed to perform the cognitive tasks of WAIS-III, Stroop test,WCST,and ToL Task.Participants in the second and third sessions either had their cardiovascular fitnes assessed using the GXT or were administered other physical and motor fitnes tests.In the third session,there was a semistructured interview to assess participants’views on their sport training and this was followed immediately by the test phase of the study.

2.7.Statistical analyses

A between-subject design was applied.One-way ANOVA was used to evaluate differences across groups(i.e.,endurance, motorically complex,and control).A mixed-model 3 (group)×5(condition)ANOVA was employed for the Stroop test.One-way ANOVA was used to detect the differences across groups in other cognitive measures including WCST and the ToL Task.The identificatio of significan differences on physical and motor fitness Stroop test,WCST,and ToL Task among groups was followed by multiple comparisons that were Bonferroni-adjusted.

3.Results

3.1.Participant characteristics

There was no significan difference(p>0.05)across groups in regard to age,height,gender,father and mothers’education level,and socio-economic status of the family.In addition,no significan difference(p>0.05)across groups was observed in digit span and picture completion tests of WAIS-III.These results suggest a degree of homogeneity across the 3 groups of participants in terms of demographic data(Table 1).

3.2.Sport characteristics

In regard to sport characteristics,there were significan differences in the number of years engaged in sport training,daily training hours,and daily hours of vigorous training(all atp<0.001).Post hocanalyses revealed that both sport groups had a longer training year and more daily hours of training than those in the control group.Further,the motorically complex group had the most daily training hours across 3 groups (Table 1).

3.3.Physical characteristics measures

Results of the measures across groups revealed that there were significan differences in VO2peak,muscular endurance, fl xibility,agility,and power(all atp<0.001),as well as% body fat mass and BMI(both atp<0.05).Post hocanalyses indicated that the endurance group had the highest VO2peakand lowest body composition(BMI and%body fat mass),followed by the motorically complex group,and the control group had the lowest VO2peakand highest body composition.Regarding muscular endurance(press-ups,30 s and 60 s crunch curl-ups), fl xibility,agility,and power,the motorically complex group recorded the highest values,followed by the endurance group, and the control group had the lowest values(all atp<0.001).A similar trend was observed for muscular strength,although this did not reach statistical significanc(p>0.05)(Table 1).

3.4.Cognitive performance

Table 2 contains descriptive data for cognitive performance outcomes.Regarding the Stroop test,a mixed-model ANOVA revealed no significan Group×Condition interaction or main effect of group;whereas there was a significan main effect of Stroop test condition(F=266.5,p<0.01).Post hocanalyses indicated that the Stroop incongruent condition was associated with the longest response time,and following this were the Stroop neutral,Stroop square,and then Stroop word, with no significan differences across the latter 3 conditions, while Stroop congruent exhibited the shortest response time.One-way ANOVA revealed no significan differences(p>0.05) across the 3 groups in WCST and ToL Task performance.

Table 2 Descriptive data for participants’cognitive performances across control,endurance,and motorically complex groups(mean±SD).

4.Discussion

The present study investigated whether elite athletes with high fitnes levels exhibited superior performances on general cognition tests when compared to a recreationally active control group,and whether the type of sport that athletes participated in (endurance vs.motorically complex)had a bearing on cognitive performance.

As predicted,both sportgroups demonstrated superiorphysical and motor fitnes when compared to the control group. Specificaly,marathon runners had the highest cardiovascular fitnes and lowest percentage of body fat,whereas Wushu athletes exhibited the highest levels of local muscular endurance, fl xibility,agility,and power.Interestingly,in contrast to our research hypothesis,there was no significan difference across the 3 groupsforthe battery ofgeneralcognitive tasksassessed in the present study.

Although the finding did not replicate those of previous exercise–cognition studies that demonstrated positive effects of fitnes on cognitive function among non-sport populations,27,28our finding did support those of a small number of sportrelated studies.29,30The latter studies indicate that the experiences of accomplished sports persons have limited influenc on general cognition that is assessed under laboratory conditions. Helson and Starkes30found that only domain-specifi cognition rather than non-specifi cognition could differentiate between expert and intermediate-level soccer players.Similarly,Lum et al.29indicated that,compared to non-athletes,athletes with static(e.g.,swimming)or dynamic(e.g.,soccer)experience exhibited no difference in automatic orienting of general cognitive domain,but voluntary orienting and modulation of automatic orienting of sport-specifi cognitive domain.Therefore, our finding indicate that whether level of expertise accounts for specifi aspects of general cognition remains a matter of considerable debate.31,32

In addition to the perceptual speed aspect of cognition(e.g., Stroop congruent,Stroop word conditions),the present study examined the executive control aspects of cognition using neuropsychological assessments(e.g.,Stroop incongruent condition,WCST,and ToL Task),which adds to the existing knowledge base.The present finding fall in line with those of previous studies that demonstrated a Stroop interference effect (i.e.,longer response times of Stroop incongruent condition compared to Stroop neutral condition)and a Stroop facilitation effect(i.e.,shorter response time of Stroop congruent condition compared to Stroop neutral condition).Both Stroop effects are the consequence of multiple competitive cognitive processes during naming the color word and identifying the meaning of words.21,33Additionally,we applied the neuropsychological assessments recommended by Etnier and Chang22including the Stroop test,WCST,and ToL Task,in order to measure interferences,shifting,and planning aspectsofexecutive control.These representhigherlevelcognitivefunctionsthatareresponsible for goal-oriented behavior.18However,whether these executive functions that relate to general cognitive domains could match the complexities of the sports environment and therefore be influence by expert experiences has been the subject of debate.34Given thatmeta-analytic reviewshave indicated thatin sport-related perception–cognitive domains,athletes exhibited better performances(e.g.,greater accuracy,shorter attentional cuing time,faster processing speeds when responding to environmental stimuli,fewer fixations)13,35the finding of the present study suggest that any beneficia effects on cognition mightbe associated with sport-specifi cognitive domains rather than general cognitive domains,particularly executive function.

The failure to reveal any positive relationship between expertise in sports and general cognitive abilities may also be attributable to the dose–response trend involved between exercise and cognition,wherein extreme training doses would limitphysiological and psychological functions.36Sport-related training improves physical abilities(e.g.,cardiovascular fitnes and motor fitness)nonetheless,excessive physical training might cause physiological maladaptations and,in turn,offset the potentially beneficia effects of exercise on cognition. Several studies have indicated that excessive or highly intense training/exercise results in oxidative stress,which is an imbalance between reactive oxygen species and antioxidant defense systems.This results in disturbances in the normal redox state by producing peroxides and free radicals,and consequently leads to damage to proteins and lipids of the cell plasma.37Oxidative stress has been linked to decreased cognition or increased cognitive decline symptoms,38,39and research has further indicated that intense exercise can lead to oxidative stress in the brain,which in turn impairs basic information processes and executive cognitive performances.40Through the semi-structured interviews,we found that the 2 athlete groups indicated that with prolonged high-intensity training,they often experienced burnout-related symptoms and high levels of fatigue.For example,athletes engaged in marathon training ran at least 25 km per day,while Wushu athletes endured 5 h of training per day with almost 3 h of anaerobic-type training. There is a possibility that the effects of overtraining offset the beneficia cognitive functions associated with exercise in the general population.

Second,the type of cognitive tasks employed should be carefully considered.While the current study applied multiple neuropsychological assessments,as suggested in the literature,22these assessments only measure cognitive function in terms of information processing,interference,shifting,and planning aspects of cognition;notwithstanding this,the results were unable to be generalized to other aspects of cognition.Third, studies that have found positive associations between exercise participation and cognition have been examined predominantly in either older adults or pre-adolescents,5,11,12,41while the present study targeted young adults.Clearly,additional work is required to examine the other types of cognitive function,as well as populations of different ages in order to further understanding.

Some limitations warrant consideration while interpreting the current data.First,although the screening procedure was intended to ensure a level of homogeneity,as indicated by a lack of difference across a range of demographic variables across the 3 test groups(e.g.,age,education,working memory,perceptual organization aspects of intelligence quotients,and parents’education),the cross-sectional design could not control for other factors that might influenc cognition(e.g.,level of sporting attainment).Longitudinal studies that adopt an idiographic approach are therefore recommended in examining the impact of intensive sport-related training on cognition.

5.Conclusion

Athletes who engaged in contrasting training modalities did not exhibit any enhancements in general cognition when compared with a recreationally active control group.Given that only a few studies have examined the effects of sport-related training with reference to general cognition,15,16the present finding highlight the necessity to initiate additional studies that address whether individuals with a superior fitnes status or long-term engagement in sports training of different types(e.g.,motoric vs.cognitive)show that their physical training activities have influence their general cognition.It is also the case that athletes who have been engaged in long-term programs of mental training as part of their preparation for competitive sport might also exhibit enhancements in general cognition.

Acknowledgment

This study was supported,in part,by a grant from the Ministry of Science and Technology,Taiwan,China,for Yu-Kai Chang(NSC102-2420-H-179-001-MY3).

Authors’contributions

ECHC and CHC designed the study and oversaw the data collection;YKC designed the study,oversaw the data collection,analyzed the data,and wrote up the inital manuscript;CIK assisted with analysis of the data,as well as in the organisation and write-up of the manuscript;CCW,JHCT,and YSW collected the data.All authors played a part in the preparation of the manuscript at each stage of its development.All authors have read and approved the fina version of the manuscript,and agree with the order of presentation of the authors.

Competing interests

None of the authors declare competing financia interests.

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Received 4 May 2015;revised 20 June 2015;accepted 23 July 2015 Available online 27 November 2015

Peer review under responsibility of Shanghai University of Sport.

*Corresponding author.

E-mail address:yukaichangnew@gmail.com(Y.-K.Chang)

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2015.07.007

2095-2546/©2017 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.on behalf of Shanghai University of Sport.This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Methods:Sixty participants were recruited into an endurance,motorically complex,or control group,and were administered a series of physical tests and neuropsychological assessments.

Results:Athletes in the endurance group demonstrated the highest levels of cardiovascular fitnes and those in the motorically complex group exhibited the highest levels of motor fitness Nonetheless,no differences in cognitive performance were observed between the 3 groups.

Conclusion:These finding indicate that the mode of sport training,which results in either high cardiovascular or high motor fitness bears no relationship to measures of general cognition in elite athletes.The present finding suggest that coaches and athletic trainers should be encouraged to monitor athletes’stress levels during training in order to maximize the beneficia effects of such training on general cognitive performance. ©2017 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.on behalf of Shanghai University of Sport.This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).